The Siege of Jerusalem: Crusade and Conquest in 1099 Read online

  ere were soldiers who delighted in spitting

  and urinating over crosses that had been hung down from the walls. As they smashed up the Christian symbol they shouted out: ‘Franks, how wonderful is this cross?’

  All in all the Muslim counter-demonstrations were highly eff ective at taking the shine off the attempt by the Christians to raise themselves to a new pitch of religious fervour. And when the crusaders reached Mount Zion a new game began. For arrows fi red from the city walls could just reach the great throng.

  While the Christians tried to fi nish their ceremony with proper dignity, they took casualties from the whistling missiles, including that of an unfortunate cleric struck right through the centre of his forehead. Th

  e rage that burned in

  the hearts of the Christian forces towards their enemies had never been higher, while the defenders of the city had enjoyed themselves and taken heart from the distinctly bizarre and unmilitary behaviour of their enemies. But the new siege towers loomed ominously and there must have been many among the onlookers in Jerusalem who were wondering at the terrible vengeance this ragged and fervent crowd would take if they were to get inside the walls. 8

  At least Ift ikhār was doing all he could to ensure that this did not happen.

  Not only did he order the ceaseless construction of stone-throwing machines, ensuring that they would outnumber those of the attackers several times over, but he took steps to neutralize the threat posed by the siege towers. At the southern gate facing Mount Zion and at the part of the northern wall facing Godfrey’s siege engine, masons and carpenters were employed throughout the daylight hours building up the wall and adding wooden hoardings so that the height of the defences at those threatened points was greater than that of the towers.

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  is was discouraging from the crusaders’ perspective, especially those in the southern camp. In the northern camp, however, there were a small circle of princes who were pleased to see Ift ikhār putting so much eff ort in the defences

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  that faced their siege tower. Between themselves, but still a matter of great secrecy to the wider camp, the princes had agreed that despite the eff ort involved, their actual point of attack would be much further east along northern wall and not the section that their equipment currently faced. Th ey intended

  to take advantage of the availability of great numbers of willing hands to haul everything during the night before the attack, tower included, around to the more advantageous position.

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  e night of Saturday 9 July, still glowing with pleasure that the Christian forces had united in their determination to assault the city, the northern army was told of the plan to change the point of attack. Th

  e order was eminently

  sensible and seized upon eagerly, despite the toil that it entailed. While hundreds of crusaders took advantage of the dark, the lack of stone-throwing machines in the sector, and their wicker mantels, to fi ll in the ditch outside the wall at the point where the attack was now to begin, hundreds more carried the heavy beams and sections of the siege tower across a kilometre of rough ground to its new position. Th

  en all the trebuchets had to be moved and the piles of

  rocks prepared as their ammunition brought across too. It was backbreaking work, but there were many hands to make it lighter and a grim determination to thwart the preparations of the garrison.

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  e city awoke to the sounds of hammering as the parts of the siege tower were knocked back into shape at its new location. Only two days had passed since the soldiers on the walls of Jerusalem had enjoyed the sport of mocking the absurd and unmilitary procession around the city, but now they had the unpleasant realization that present in the Christian army alongside the spiritual fervour was a calculating and astute tactical intelligence. Of course Ift ikhār at once had all the northern throwing machines moved to guard the new line of approach, as well as all the ammunition, and the bags of chaff for protecting the walls, but the great eff ort the defenders of the city had put into building up extra height on the walls was wasted and they had lost their fi rst line of defence, the ditch.

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  e news of the extraordinary eff orts made by their northern comrades came as quite a surprise to southern camp. Th

  e secret had been well kept. It was

  pointless for the leaders of the Provençal army to consider copying the manoeuvre; the only fl at approach to the city on the south side was the one they were facing. As a result, they had no choice but to contend with the new defensive constructions. For the southern army, however, the most immediate question was not so much the additional height of the wall facing them, but the problem of the ditch. Th

  ere could be no question of bringing up their tower to the walls

  of Jerusalem without fi rst fi lling in that great moat. Th

  ey had been trying for

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  some time to throw rocks and clods of earth into the ditch and with some success. But even at night it was dangerous work, the defenders of Jerusalem were so close that torchlight could pick out their targets and a deadly game took place between the archers on the walls and those creeping up to the city to toss stones into the ditch.

  Given that the northern army was nearly ready to attempt an all-out assault upon Jerusalem, the rate at which the moat on the southern side was being fi lled was far too slow. Holding their newly constructed mantles before them, the Christians could come within bowshot safely enough, but Ift ikhār had placed the majority of his mangonels in this spot and screens woven of branches were no protection against heavy, fast fl ung, stones. Although the crusaders were eager to make the assault on the city, they were less eager to be the ones who risked their bones by coming up to the ditch. Count Raymond solved the problem by once more resorting to his treasure chest. It was still full of tribute paid to him by Jala-al-Mulk of Tripoli at a time when the emir had greatly feared for his city and his life. Raymond now off ered a penny to every person who fl ung three rocks into the ditch. A penny was a mouthful of water. Suddenly there was no lack of brave souls and if fl ying rocks shattered bodies and limbs, nevertheless over three days and nights of constant eff ort the ditch grew less and less formidable, until the crusaders could gaze upon it with great satisfaction. Th e

  path for their siege tower was ready.9

  A meeting of the princes of both camps now took place. Although it was impossible to completely forget the latent rivalry between them, particularly over who should be ruler of Jerusalem, they were pleased with each other’s progress. Th

  e date of 14 July was agreed for their common assault and in the

  meantime knights were ordered to construct one ladder or two mantlets between them, while the clergy collected alms for the poor, held vigils, and devoted themselves to prayer.

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  roughout all this period of intense activity among the Christian army the hardship of thirst and hunger had not declined. Th

  e availability of coin

  dispensed by Count Raymond – to the garrison of his camp, to the sailors, and to those fi lling the ditch – meant that supplies obtained from local sympathetic Christians and entrepreneurial crusaders gravitated towards the southern camp. It was in the northern camp therefore that the most striking signs of hunger and dehydration were visible.

  Out of concern that the crusaders on their side of the city would be too enfeebled to make a determined assault, Tancred volunteered to ride out on a major raid in search of supplies. With Gaston busy organizing the construction of the siege equipment, it was decided that Count Eustace, Godfrey’s brother,

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  should partner Tancred in the enterprise and so, on the morning of Sunday 10 July, about 100 knights rode out of the northern camp. Given that the lands to the east
and south had been scoured again and again, while they had heard positive reports from the two Roberts about the region around Nablus, Tancred and Eustace made their way northwards.

  For the fi rst day they found nothing but ruined farms and vineyards as all the land as far as Nablus had already been raided by Christian knights. With dawn on the second day, however, as they approached the city, the foraging party caught sight of herdsmen fl eeing along a river valley towards the safety of the walls. Galloping aft er the Muslim farmers, Tancred and Eustace just caught up with them before the city gates and drove the animals aside, where they were able to herd them together. Knowing how great was the hunger back at camp, the two princes were not content with this success and continued the raid further into Muslim held territory, plundering from villages and farms and reaching a major mosque before turning back. Early in the morning on Wednesday 13 July, the fourth day of their expedition, the dust of their troop could be seen from the camp. It was with a huge sense of relief and joy that the herds of animals laden with plunder were welcomed back. Th

  ere would be no

  lack of food for those about to assault the walls of Jerusalem.10

  With the ditch fi lled in at the key points, the ram and the siege towers ready, and as with many trebuchets and mangonels as they could construct from the remaining wood, the Christian army was ready to attempt the storming of the city. Roast meat fi lled their bellies and dreams of glory their thoughts. Th at

  aft ernoon they brought the stone throwers into range, and began the attack.

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  is was not the full charge of the entire crusading army, but a preliminary exchange of fi re, to allow those with picks and hammers to work away at the outer wall and to level off the ditch. It was violent enough though. As the sun declined, stones fell through the air like rain, crashed heavily to the ground, and sometimes dealt crushing blows to bone or timber as they found their target. Ift ikhār was well prepared for this kind of warfare and for every stone fl ung towards the city, nine were hurled back at the attackers. Admittedly the hybrid trebuchets were throwing a heavier missile than the defenders’ mangonels but the Fatimid soldiers were well prepared. Th

  eir own machines were

  covered with bags fi lled with chaff to cushion the impact of fl ying rocks and the same padding was lowered over the wall ensuring that it would not fragment during the bombardment. As night fell and the waning moon, beyond its last quarter, gave only limited light, the exchange of fi re dwindled away to a halt.

  What were they thinking in their respective positions as they waited for the sun to come around again and bring with its illumination the resumption

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  of battle? Th

  e Christians were probably the more confi dent. When they had

  fi rst arrived at Jerusalem there had been no miraculous delivery of the city into their hands. As a result they had been downcast and even if thirst had not wrecked their hopes there was the fear that a great army would come up from Egypt and destroy them. Now, however, they were ready to storm the city and had great faith in their siege engines. Inside the city, there was almost certainly an equivalent anxiety. Al-afdal was on the way, but the decisive confl ict was upon them before he could possibly arrive. It was astonishing how ominous those towers looked, especially the sturdy one on the south. On both sides of the city nearly all the obstacles between the towers and the city walls had been cleared away. Everything would depend on whether the defenders could batter and burn the Christian towers before they provided a way over the walls. And if this strange and fervent army were to get into the city, what would be the consequence?

  Chapter 7

  Th

  e Storming of Jerusalem

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  ursday 14 July 1099. Just beyond arrow shot from the north wall of the city a mass of Christian knights and foot soldiers had formed up in the cool of dawn, their front ranks glittering now that the long shadow of the Mount of Olives had retreated and the rising sun fell upon their chainmail hauberks. Behind the close-packed ranks of professional warriors were thousands of unarmoured crusaders, lean and dangerous looking, with crudely made weapons in their hands. Amongst them were elderly men, young boys and many women. All knew that the decisive day had come and all were ready to risk their lives to make sure the day was theirs. Behind the combatants were the clergy, singing liturgies and calling out to God for aid.

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  e northern army had formed up in two distinct clusters. Robert of Normandy and Robert of Flanders – as they had so oft en done before – united their armies in order to fi ght side by side. Th

  eir task was to close to the walls

  and with an intense barrage of stones fl ung from machines and a constant hail of arrows try to keep the defenders from gathering at the critical points. To the east of the two Roberts a larger body of crusaders gathered behind a great battering ram. Th

  is great mass of troops included Tancred, Gaston and the

  unaligned northern French knights, now willingly taking their places alongside Duke Godfrey and the Lotharingians. Duke Godfrey’s command and fi ghting position was the top fl oor of the siege tower itself.

  Back at ‘Arqā, when Arnulf of Chocques had challenged Peter Bartholomew to prove himself and the Holy Lance through the trial by fi re, the relic that so many had looked to as a talisman had been proven discredited, at least in the minds of those unsympathetic to Count Raymond of Toulouse. But there remained in the Christian army a desire to believe in the protective powers of God, as embodied in relics such as the bones of St George, St Cyprian, St Omechios, St Leontius, St John Chrysostom, the cross formerly carried by Adhémar, a ring blessed by Mary and – in the Lotharingian contingent – a large cross covered in gold with a statue of Jesus inside. Th

  is shimmering cross had

  been mounted on the top of the northern siege tower, the most prominent standard for the northern assault. 1

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  With the ground fl oor packed with men and with volunteers ready to push from behind with poles, the plan was to bring the tower close enough to the walls of the city that they could overlook the defences and clear away the defenders while at the base of the wall the ram did its work. Were they to be able to dominate a stretch of the city wall by throwing down stones or their constant fi ring of arrows, it might even become possible for ladders to be successfully placed against the defences and the walls of the city scaled.

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  e battering ram was to lead the assault. It was a construction of enormous weight, with the huge iron-headed beam swinging from underneath a sturdy triangular roof protected by wickerwork panels. Th

  ose who braved being

  crushed in the device – comrades of the Lotharingians who had perished with the collapse of the similar siege engine at Nicea – were to also push it in position, but they could count on the assistance of crusaders pulling on ropes ahead of the ram and more pushing with poles from behind.

  Ready with heaps of rocks, bundles of arrows and skins of Greek Fire, were the Muslim garrison and their civilian allies looking out from the walls at the grim crusading army. Th

  e section of the wall opposite the ram was packed with

  defenders, for as it was clear no action would be taking place on the west or east walls the Fatimid troops could concentrate their troops in the restricted area that was evidently going to witness the bulk of the fi ghting. From their point of view it was a shame that the wall was not higher, they had been wrongfooted by the dismantling and reassembly of the siege equipment, but all the same, they outnumbered their enemies in bows and stone throwing machines.

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  is section of the northern wall formed part of the Jewish quarter and the Fatimid archers and siege crews were assisted by a willing civilian population, ready to bring up water, stones and, indeed, to hurl rocks at the crusa
ders.

  Several towers protruding from the city allowed the defenders to shoot arrows right along the face of the wall and the platforms provided by the tops of the towers were perfect for the placement of some of the northern mangonels, whose height advantage ensure they would be in range once the Christians brought their own machines forward. Th

  e offi

  cers of the Fatimid mangonels

  had been instructed on which targets were to be their priority. Th ey had enough

  machines to be able to divide their fi re, with some standing by to counter the Christian stone throwers, while fi ve were allocated to the destruction of the siege tower.

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  e scene at the south side of the city was similar, although the Provençal army had been standing in the bright sunlight of the higher ground of Mount Zion for some time before the shadows retreated from the city below them.

  Here again behind the armoured warriors were gathered poorer men, women

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  and children ready to cast the lives into the balance. Here also, and in greater numbers, the clergy began the day with chants and prayers. Th

  ere was no ram

  on the southern side, but their siege tower was very impressive. Tall and sturdy, it was packed with knights and ahead of it a slight downslope off ered to assist those assigned to pushing it towards the walls.

  It was this tower that Ift ikhār was most concerned about and most determined to halt. Two-thirds of the city’s mangonels, including his most powerful machines with the best crews, had been assigned to this position. With the exception of a few riders to act as messengers and a reserve at the citadel, Ift ikhār also had his 400 cavalry dismounted and placed on the walls, the majority of them in the south where he personally intended to supervise aff airs. Used to fi ring their recurved bows from horseback, the dismounted warriors would be able to provide deadly and accurate assistance to the rest of the garrison.